Ba da Labari
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Narrate a personal or imagined experience as a connected sequence of events, rather than as a list of disconnected sentences.
- Distinguish and correctly select general completive and relative completive subject forms in narration, questions, and focus.
- Distinguish and correctly select general continuative and relative continuative subject forms when describing ongoing circumstances within a story.
- Use habitual -kan- forms productively to describe events that repeated regularly within a story or in general experience.
- Connect narrative events using approved connectors of sequence, cause, result, and contrast.
- Maintain clear reference to people and things across a narrative using nouns and pronouns appropriately.
- Describe a reaction or result following a narrated event.
- Ask and answer follow-up questions about a story you or someone else has told.
- Write a coherent 180–220-word narrative in standard Boko with a clear beginning, sequence, and outcome.
Communication Scenario
A friend asks you to tell them about something memorable that happened to you — a trip, a family event, a problem you solved, or an ordinary day that took an unexpected turn. Telling a good story requires more than listing completed actions: you need to set the scene, sequence events clearly, show what repeated or was ongoing in the background, and explain how you felt or what happened as a result. This chapter brings together nearly everything you have learned so far into the service of one of the most natural and valuable things a speaker of any language does: telling a story.
- Chapter 16 gave you the general completive for narrating single completed events. Chapter 17 added the subjunctive for proposals and sequencing. Chapter 18 gave you comparison and cultural discussion. Chapter 19 asks you to combine all of it — plus one new productive tool, the habitual -kan- form — into connected, multi-sentence narration.
- A real story rarely uses only one aspect. A narrator moves between what was already happening (continuative), what happened at one point (completive), and what used to happen regularly (habitual) — often within the same few sentences. This chapter teaches you to recognize which aspect a moment calls for and to move between them with confidence.
- This chapter also emphasizes connectors — the small words and phrases that turn a list of sentences into a story: sai (then), saboda (because), don haka (so, therefore), amma (but), kodayake (although). These connectors are the glue of narrative Hausa.
Core Vocabulary
Tsarin labari — Narrative structure
| Hausa | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| labari | story, news, account | m.; pl. labarai; ba da labari = to tell a story (lit. "give a story") |
| farko | beginning, start | m.; a farko = at the beginning; reviewed from Ch. 18 (ɗan fari) |
| ƙarshe | end, ending | m.; a ƙarshe = in the end, finally |
| da farko | first of all, at first | reviewed from Ch. 18; common story opener |
| sannan | then, after that | sequence connector — central to this chapter |
| sai | then, and then; except; until | sequence connector; very high frequency in narration |
| daga baya | afterward, later | lit. "from behind"; sequence connector |
| ba da daɗewa ba | not long after, soon after | sequence phrase |
| nan take | immediately, right away, on the spot | time expression for sudden events |
| a ƙarshe | finally, in the end | common story closer |
| saboda | because, since | cause connector; also domin (reviewed Ch. 14) |
| don haka | so, therefore, for that reason | result connector |
| amma | but | contrast connector; reviewed throughout course |
| kodayake | although, even though | contrast connector |
| duk da haka | nevertheless, even so | contrast connector; lit. "despite that" |
| a wannan lokaci | at this point, at that time | useful for shifting narrative time |
Ji da halaye — Reactions and feelings
| Hausa | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| mamaki | surprise, astonishment | m.; na yi mamaki = I was surprised |
| tsoro | fear | m.; na ji tsoro = I felt afraid |
| farin ciki | happiness, joy | reviewed from Ch. 18; lit. "white heart" |
| baƙin ciki | sadness, sorrow | lit. "black heart"; contrast with farin ciki |
| fushi | anger | m.; na yi fushi = I got angry |
| sauƙi | relief, ease | m.; na ji sauƙi = I felt relieved |
| damuwa | worry, concern | f.; na yi damuwa = I was worried |
| alfahari | pride | m.; na yi alfahari = I felt proud |
| na yi mamaki / na ji tsoro / na yi farin ciki | reaction frames | most feelings pattern with yi (to do) or ji (to feel/hear) + noun — flag: verify which feeling nouns pattern with yi vs. ji |
Bita: tafiye-tafiye, iyali, makaranta, aiki, al'umma — Review domains
This chapter deliberately recycles vocabulary from earlier communication domains rather than introducing a large new set. Review the following before drafting your narrative: tafiya (trip, journey — Ch. 11), mota, jirgin ƙasa (travel, Ch. 11); iyali, ɗan'uwa, 'yar'uwa (family, Ch. 4); makaranta, malami, ɗalibi (school, Ch. 14); aiki, ma'aikaci (work, Ch. 14); biki, al'ada (community and celebration, Chs. 17–18). No new vocabulary domain is introduced in this chapter; the focus is grammar and discourse.
Haɗin jimla — Clause connectors (summary table)
| Function | Hausa | English |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | sai, sannan, daga baya, a ƙarshe | then, after that, later, finally |
| Cause | saboda, domin | because, since |
| Result | don haka | so, therefore |
| Contrast | amma, kodayake, duk da haka | but, although, nevertheless |
Pronunciation and Boko
Narrative tone and rhythm
Connected narration has its own rhythm, distinct from the shorter question-and-answer exchanges of earlier chapters. Sentences linked by sai and sannan tend to flow together with only a brief pause, while a shift signaled by amma or kodayake often carries a small change in pitch that signals the contrast to come. Listen for this rhythm in the model dialogue and reading passages, and practice reading a full narrative paragraph aloud rather than only isolated sentences.
General and relative completive and continuative subject forms can be close in spelling but carry distinct tone patterns that affect meaning and grammatical function. For example, the general completive third-person singular masculine form contrasts in tone and use with the relative completive form used after a question word or a focused element. Your audio source is the required reference for these contrasts — do not attempt to infer which form is intended from Boko spelling alone, since ordinary Boko does not mark this distinction. Flag for expert review: verify the specific tone contrast between general and relative completive third-person forms as used in this chapter's examples.
The habitual marker -kan- attaches to the subject-pronoun form and is pronounced as part of a single rhythmic unit with the pronoun: nakan, takan, mukan, sukan. Practice these forms as complete units rather than as pronoun plus a separate syllable. Vowel length in the pronoun element must be preserved even though the habitual marker is added. Flag for expert review: verify vowel length in each person-marked habitual form before audio production.
Paragraphing in ordinary Boko
As your writing grows longer and more connected, paragraph organization becomes important. Standard Boko uses ordinary sentence punctuation and paragraph breaks similar to English: a new paragraph for a new stage of the story, a period at the end of each sentence, and a comma to separate clauses joined by connectors when natural. Ordinary Boko remains unmarked for tone and vowel length even in extended narrative writing.
Grammar Instruction
19.1 Habitual forms with -kan-: productive introduction
Purpose: describe events or actions that repeated regularly, especially within a narrative about the past or about general experience.
Since Chapter 7, you have used the continuative to describe ongoing or regular activity in context, and you have seen the habitual -kan- marker mentioned for recognition only. This chapter makes the habitual construction fully productive. The habitual describes what someone regularly did, does, or does as a matter of course — distinct from a single completed event (completive) or something happening right now (continuative).
| Person | Habitual form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| 1sg | nakan | I habitually / regularly (do) |
| 2sg.m | kakan | you (m.) habitually (do) |
| 2sg.f | kikan | you (f.) habitually (do) |
| 3sg.m | yakan | he habitually (does) |
| 3sg.f | takan | she habitually (does) |
| 1pl | mukan | we habitually (do) |
| 2pl | kukan | you (pl.) habitually (do) |
| 3pl | sukan | they habitually (do) |
- Yakan tafi makaranta da ƙafa kowace rana.He habitually walks to school every day.yakan (3sg.m habitual) + tafi + complement
- A ƙuruciyata, nakan taimaki mahaifiyata a gida bayan makaranta.In my childhood, I used to help my mother at home after school.nakan (1sg habitual) — sets a habitual background before the story's completed events begin
- Sukan haɗu a wannan kantin sayar da littattafai kowane Asabar.They regularly meet at this bookshop every Saturday.
- Kakanninmu sukan ba da labarai da yamma, kafin mu kwanta.Our grandparents used to tell stories in the evening, before we went to bed.
Important: The habitual construction describes a repeated pattern, not one occasion. Compare: Mun ziyarci kakanninmu a bara (We visited our grandparents last year — completive, one occasion) versus Mukan ziyarci kakanninmu a lokacin hutu (We usually visit our grandparents during the holidays — habitual, a repeated pattern). A narrative often uses the habitual to establish background before narrating the specific completed events of the story.
You may recall from Chapter 7 that the continuative can describe regular activity in appropriate contexts, alongside its more central use for ongoing action. Now that the habitual is productive, you have two related but distinguishable tools. In general, prefer the habitual -kan- form when the sentence's main point is that something happens as a repeated pattern, especially in past-time narration ("used to," "would regularly"). The continuative remains appropriate for describing what is or was happening at a described moment, or for a routine described in the present. Both forms will continue to appear in natural Hausa; this chapter gives you productive control of the habitual so you can choose between them deliberately rather than by accident.
19.2 General and relative completive: consolidation
Purpose: correctly select the general or relative completive subject form depending on whether the completed action is questioned, focused, or ordinarily stated.
You met the general completive productively in Chapter 16 and the relative completive in taught information questions there and in Chapter 17. This chapter consolidates the contrast: use the general completive for an ordinary statement of a completed event, and the relative completive when an element of the clause is questioned, focused, or otherwise relativized — for example, after a question word like me (what) or yaushe (when), or when a narrative highlights a specific participant or circumstance.
| Context | Form type | Example | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ordinary statement | general completive | Mun tafi Kano a bara. | We went to Kano last year. |
| Information question (when) | relative completive | Yaushe muka tafi Kano? | When did we go to Kano? |
| Focused element | relative completive | Kano muka tafi, ba Sokoto ba. | It was Kano we went to, not Sokoto. |
- Da farko, mun isa tashar jirgin ƙasa da wuri.First, we arrived at the train station early.general completive — ordinary narrative statement
- Me ya faru bayan haka?What happened after that?relative completive — following the question word me
- Wanda ya kai mu filin jirgin sama shi ne kanena.The one who took us to the airport was my younger brother.relative completive — focused/relativized subject (wanda)
Pedagogical note: This is consolidation, not new grammar — the underlying rule is unchanged from Chapters 16–17. What is new is the requirement to select correctly between the two forms rapidly and correctly within an extended narrative, where questions, focus, and ordinary statements may occur close together.
19.3 General and relative continuative: consolidation
Purpose: correctly select the general or relative continuative subject form when describing an ongoing circumstance within a narrative, especially when that circumstance is questioned or focused.
The same general-versus-relative contrast applies to the continuative, first modeled formulaically in Chapter 3 and made productive in Chapter 7. In narration, the continuative frequently sets the scene: what was going on when the main completed event occurred.
- Muna jiran mota lokacin da ta zo.We were waiting for the vehicle when it arrived.muna (general continuative) sets ongoing background; ta zo (completive) states the punctual event
- Me kake yi lokacin da wutar ta kashe?What were you doing when the lights went out?kake (relative continuative, 2sg.m) — following question word me
- Ni ne nake tuƙi lokacin da muka ga fasinja a bakin hanya.It was I who was driving when we saw a passenger by the roadside.nake (relative continuative) — focused subject ni ne
19.4 Connecting narrative events: sequence, cause, result, and contrast
Purpose: link narrated events into a coherent story using the appropriate connector for the relationship between clauses.
Sequence: use sai, sannan, daga baya, and a ƙarshe to move the story forward in time.
- Mun ci abinci, sai muka fita gari.We ate, then we went out into town.sai often introduces a subjunctive or relative-completive-like sequential clause; taught here as a formulaic sequence connector
- Da farko na yi rubutu, sannan na aika sakon.First I wrote it, then I sent the message.
- Daga baya, muka gane cewa mun manta da jakarmu.Later, we realized that we had forgotten our bag.
- A ƙarshe, komai ya kasance lafiya.In the end, everything turned out fine.
Cause: use saboda or domin to explain why something happened.
- Muka makara saboda hanya ta cika da mutane.We were late because the road was full of people.
Result: use don haka to state a consequence.
- Ruwan sama ya sauko sosai, don haka muka jinkirta tafiyar.It rained heavily, so we postponed the trip.
Contrast: use amma, kodayake, or duk da haka to show an unexpected or opposing turn.
- Mun yi ƙoƙari sosai, amma ba mu isa a kan lokaci ba.We tried very hard, but we did not arrive on time.
- Kodayake muna gajiya, mun ci gaba da tafiya.Although we were tired, we continued on.
- Duk da haka, mun yi murna a ƙarshe.Nevertheless, we rejoiced in the end.
Flag for expert review: The clause-sequencing behavior of sai — specifically whether the clause following it in narration is best treated as a relative completive, a subjunctive, or simply the general completive in this beginner-level presentation — requires specialist confirmation. This chapter presents sai as a formulaic sequence connector without requiring learners to analyze the internal aspect of the following clause.
19.5 Object pronouns and object-conditioned verb forms in narration
Purpose: refer accurately to people and things mentioned earlier in a story using direct- and indirect-object pronouns and their required verb forms.
As a story grows longer, you must refer back to people and things without repeating full nouns every time. Review direct-object pronouns (Ch. 9), the object-conditioned verb forms this course has taught (Chs. 9, 13, 16), and indirect-object frames (Ch. 13).
- Na sadu da wani tsohon aboki, na gan shi a kasuwa.I met an old friend; I saw him at the market.shi = direct-object pronoun, 3sg.m, referring back to wani tsohon aboki
- Ya gaya mini labarin tafiyarsa, na kuma ba shi nawa.He told me his travel story, and I also gave him mine.mini = indirect object 1sg ("to me"); shi = indirect-object-position pronoun referring to the friend — flag for expert review: confirm indirect object pronoun form and placement in this frame
Pedagogical note: This section is review, not new grammar. Its purpose in Chapter 19 is to ensure that pronoun and object reference remain accurate as sentences lengthen and multiply in connected narration.
19.6 Clear reference: avoiding ambiguity across a narrative
Purpose: keep it clear who or what a pronoun refers to across several connected sentences.
When a story involves more than one person of the same gender, relying only on pronouns can create ambiguity. Reintroduce a full noun (a name, a kinship term, or a role) whenever the referent might be unclear, especially after a connector introduces a new clause.
Compare: Ali ya sadu da Bello. Ya gaya masa labarin tafiyarsa. (Ali met Bello. He told him his travel story.) It is not clear from the pronouns alone whether "he" is Ali or Bello, or whose trip is being described. A clearer version reintroduces names: Ali ya sadu da Bello. Ali ya gaya wa Bello labarin tafiyarsa. (Ali met Bello. Ali told Bello about his trip.) Even this remains ambiguous about whose trip — Hausa, like English, sometimes requires an added phrase such as tafiyar Ali (Ali's trip) for full clarity. When in doubt, favor the full noun over the pronoun.
Practice exercises
Atisayen A — Al'ada ko lamari? (Habitual or single event?):
Decide whether each sentence describes a habitual pattern or a single completed event, then supply the correct form of the verb in parentheses.
- A kowace shekara, iyalinmu ___ (tafi) ziyarar kakanni. (habitual)
- A bara, ___ (tafi, mu) Kano don bikin aure. (completive, single event)
- Malaminmu ___ (ba da) labari kafin darasi ya ƙare kowace rana. (habitual)
- Jiya, malaminmu ___ (ba da) labari mai ban sha'awa. (completive)
Atisayen B — Zaɓi haɗin da ya dace (Choose the correct connector):
Complete each sentence with the most logical connector: sai / saboda / don haka / amma / kodayake.
- Mun kai wurin taro da wuri, ___ babu kowa a can tukuna.
- Muka makara ___ mota ta lalace a hanya.
- Mota ta lalace, ___ muka yi tafiya da ƙafa.
- Mun gaji sosai, mun ci gaba da tafiya.
- Mun isa gida, ___ muka huta.
Atisayen C — Gamayya ko musamman? (General or relative?):
Choose the correct completive or continuative form (general or relative) for each sentence.
- ___ tafi Kano a makon da ya gabata. (Mun / Muka — ordinary statement)
- Yaushe ___ tafi Kano? (kuka / kun)
- Ni ne ___ kai su gida. (na / nake — focused, ongoing)
- ___ zaune muna magana lokacin da wutar ta kashe. (Muna / Muke — ordinary statement)
Model Dialogue
Yanayin hali: Musa yana ba wa 'yar'uwarsa Zainab labarin tafiyarsa zuwa Legas makon da ya gabata.
(Setting: Musa is telling his sister Zainab the story of his trip to Lagos last week.)
Vocabulary notes for the dialogue: nutsuwa = calm, composure (f.); kwatsam = suddenly; injin = engine (m.; loanword); direba = driver (m./f.; from English "driver"); fasinja = passenger (m.; pl. fasinjoji; loanword); tashar = the station (linked form of tasha, f.); maimakon = instead of; lafiya lau = completely well, safe and sound (fixed formula); shirya wa kansa = to prepare for oneself.
Grammar note — Habitual in the dialogue: Zainab's closing line, Ka kan yi hankali koyaushe (You always take care), uses the habitual to describe Musa's general character — a repeated pattern of behavior, not a single event. Notice how naturally the habitual pairs with koyaushe (always) here.
Tambayoyin fahimta — Comprehension questions:
- What was happening (continuative) when the vehicle suddenly stopped? Find the Hausa sentence.
- List the events of Musa's story in order, using the sequence connectors he used (da farko, sannan, ba da daɗewa ba, a ƙarshe).
- Find one sentence in the dialogue that uses a contrast connector (amma or kodayake). Write it and explain the contrast being made.
- Find the one habitual sentence in the dialogue. Who or what does it describe, and what pattern does it express?
- What lesson does Musa say he learned from the experience?
- Why did Musa call his father? Use a cause-and-result connector in your answer.
Listening
Ask your instructor, a partner, or a text-to-speech tool to read the following passages aloud, twice each. Complete the listening tasks after each passage.
Sauraro na A — Ranar da na ɓace a kasuwa (The day I got lost at the market)
"Ina ɗan shekara bakwai lokacin da wannan ya faru. Mahaifiyata takan kai ni kasuwa duk ranar Juma'a. Wata rana, muna tafiya cikin kasuwa mai cunkoso, sai na tsaya na dubi wani abin wasa mai ban sha'awa. Lokacin da na juya, ban ga mahaifiyata ba! Na yi tsoro sosai. Na yi ta yawo ina kuka, sai wata mata mai sayar da 'ya'yan itace ta tambaye ni matsala. Na gaya mata cewa na ɓace, don haka ta kai ni ofishin 'yan sanda na kasuwa. Ba da daɗewa ba, mahaifiyata ta iso, tana kuka da farin ciki. Tun daga wannan rana, ban taɓa barin hannunta a kasuwa mai cunkoso ba."
Sauraro na B — Jarabawar da ta canja tunanina (The exam that changed my thinking)
"A shekarar makarantar sakandare ta ƙarshe, na kan yi karatu da dare kafin kowace jarabawa, amma ban taɓa yin nasara sosai ba. Kafin babbar jarabawar ƙarshe, na yanke shawarar canja hanya — na fara yin karatu kaɗan-kaɗan kowace rana maimakon dare guda kafin jarabawar. Da farko, hakan bai yi sauƙi ba, saboda na saba da tsohuwar hanyata. Amma sannu a hankali, na fara fahimtar darasi da kyau. Lokacin da jarabawar ta zo, na amsa tambayoyin cikin sauƙi. Na sami babban ci gaba, kuma tun daga wannan lokaci, nakan tsara karatuna a hankali maimakon jira dare ɗaya."
Kula na A — Cikakkun bayanai (Details): Listen to Sauraro na A. Answer in English or Hausa: (1) How old was the narrator when this happened? (2) What was the narrator's mother's habitual practice, according to the story? (3) What happened when the narrator turned around? (4) Who helped the narrator, and what did that person do?
Kula na B — Gaskiya ko ƙarya? (True or false?): Listen to Sauraro na B. Mark T (true) or F (false). Correct the false items. (a) The narrator used to study the night before every exam. (b) The narrator changed strategy before a minor test. (c) The new strategy was easy from the very first day. (d) The narrator now studies a little every day.
Rubutun sauraro don malami, abokin karatu, ko amfani da rubutun lantarki. Duba amsoshi a sashi na amsoshi.
(Listening Script for Instructor, Partner, or Text-to-Speech Use. See Answer Key for expected responses.)
Reading
Read both texts carefully. As you read, underline every habitual form, box every completive form (general or relative), and circle every connector of sequence, cause, result, or contrast.
Rubutu na 1 — Labarin ƙuruciyata a ƙauye (A story of my childhood in the village)
An haife ni a wani ƙauye kusa da Kano. A ƙuruciyata, mukan tashi da wuri kowace safiya domin taimakawa iyayenmu a gona. Kaka na kan ba mu labarai masu kyau kafin mu kwanta da dare — labaran gargajiya game da dabbobi da hikima. Wata shekara, fari ya faru a garinmu, kuma amfanin gonarmu bai yi kyau ba. Iyalinmu suka yi tunani sosai, sannan mahaifina ya yanke shawarar tafiya birni domin neman aiki. Da farko, mun yi baƙin ciki matuƙa, saboda mun san ba za mu gan shi kullum ba. Amma bayan wata biyu, ya dawo da kuɗi da yawa, kuma ya iya gina sabon gida mana. Tun daga wannan lokaci, mukan tuna wannan shekarar a matsayin darasi mai muhimmanci: kodayake wahala ta zo, iyalinmu bai fasa kasancewa tare ba.
New words for recognition: gona = farm (f.); hikima = wisdom (f.); fari = drought (m.); amfanin gona = harvest, crop yield; ba za mu gan shi kullum ba = we would not see him every day — future negative recognition; ya fasa = he stopped/broke off (recognition here).
Rubutu na 2 — Rahoto: Bikin kammala karatu na jami'a (Report: A university graduation)
A ranar Asabar da ta gabata, dubban ɗalibai sun kammala karatunsu a Jami'ar Bayero da ke Kano. Iyalai da abokai sun taru domin murnar wannan babban rana. Bisa ga wata ɗaliba mai suna Amina, ita da abokan karatunta sukan yi karatu tare a ɗakin karatu kusan kowace rana a lokacin jarabawa. "Da farko, mun ji tsoro game da jarabawar ƙarshe," in ji Amina, "amma mun ci gaba da ƙoƙari, kuma a ƙarshe, mun yi nasara." Bayan bikin, an gudanar da liyafa domin dukkan iyalai da abokai. Kodayake ranar ta yi zafi sosai, hakan bai hana kowa jin daɗi ba. Wasu ɗalibai sun ce yanzu za su fara neman aiki, yayin da wasu za su ci gaba da karatu mafi girma.
New words for recognition: dubban = thousands (of); ɗakin karatu = library; in ji Amina = said Amina — quotative formula, recognition; an gudanar da = was held/conducted — impersonal passive, recognition; yayin da = while, whereas.
Tambayoyin fahimta — Comprehension questions:
- According to Rubutu na 1, what did the narrator's family habitually do each morning in childhood? Find the Hausa sentence.
- What single event disrupted the family's usual pattern? Describe it in English.
- Find two connectors of sequence in Rubutu na 1 and state what event each one introduces.
- According to Rubutu na 2, what did Amina and her classmates habitually do before the exam period? Find the Hausa sentence.
- Find one contrast connector in Rubutu na 2. What two ideas does it connect?
- Compare the two texts: which one is a personal narrative, and which is a news-style report? What differences in structure or language do you notice?
Writing Workshop
- Karanta Rubutu na 1 da hankali. Reread the childhood narrative. Underline every habitual form and box every completive form. Notice how the writer moves from habitual background (what usually happened) to a specific completed sequence of events (what happened one particular year) and back to a habitual reflection at the end.
- Zaɓi labarin da za ka/ki ba da. Choose a real or imagined experience: a trip, a family event, a problem you solved, a memorable day, or a turning point. It should have a clear beginning, a sequence of events, and an outcome or reflection.
- Tsarawa. Before writing, note: (1) any habitual background you will describe (what usually happened before or around the story); (2) the main sequence of completed events, in order; (3) at least one moment of ongoing action (continuative) that sets a scene; (4) the connectors you will use for sequence, cause, result, and contrast; (5) the reaction, feeling, or result at the end; (6) how you will keep references to people clear throughout.
- Rubuta farkon rubutunka. Write 180–220 words in Hausa. Your text must include: at least one habitual sentence; at least three completive sentences narrating specific events (using general or relative forms as appropriate); at least one continuative sentence describing ongoing background; connectors covering sequence, cause or result, and contrast; at least one clear expression of feeling or reaction; and a clear beginning, sequence, and outcome.
- Duba da jerin bincike. Check your draft against the editing checklist below.
- Rubuta siffa ta ƙarshe. Produce a clean final version for your portfolio.
Jerin binciken gyara — Editing checklist:
- Habitual forms (nakan, takan, mukan, etc.) are used only for repeated patterns, not single events.
- Completive forms correctly narrate single completed events, with the relative completive used after question words or focused elements.
- Continuative forms are used to set ongoing background, not to narrate the main completed events.
- At least one connector each of sequence, cause or result, and contrast is present and used correctly.
- Pronoun reference is clear throughout — names or roles are reintroduced whenever ambiguity could arise.
- Direct- and indirect-object pronouns are used correctly where objects are referred back to.
- The narrative has a clear beginning, a sequence of events, and an outcome or reflection at the end.
- Hooked letters (ɓ, ɗ, ƙ) and 'y are used correctly throughout.
- Gender and plural agreement of pronouns, ne/ce, adjectives, and demonstratives matches the nouns they refer to.
- Paragraphing and punctuation are used to organize the narrative clearly.
Speaking Practice
Atisaye na ƙa'ida — Habitual versus completive drills
With a partner, take turns. Partner A gives a prompt naming an activity and a time frame (e.g., kowace rana "every day" or jiya "yesterday"). Partner B produces the correct sentence: habitual for a repeated time frame, completive for a single past occasion. Example: A says kowace rana — tafi makaranta; B says Nakan tafi makaranta kowace rana. A then says jiya — tafi makaranta; B says Na tafi makaranta jiya. Do at least eight exchanges, switching roles after four.
Ba da labari — Guided storytelling
Choose one of the following prompts and tell your partner a short story (four to six sentences): a trip that did not go as planned; a memorable school or work day; a family celebration you attended; a time you helped someone or were helped. Use at least one habitual sentence, one sequence connector, and one contrast or result connector. Your partner should ask at least two follow-up questions using question words from earlier chapters (me, yaushe, ina, me ya sa). Switch roles.
Kammala labarin — Story completion
Partner A begins a story with two or three sentences and stops at a suspenseful moment (for example: Muna zaune muna kallon talabijin, sai wutar ta kashe.). Partner B must continue the story for at least four more sentences, using at least one completive sequence, one contrast or result connector, and a reasonable outcome. Then switch roles with a new opening.
Madadin karatu kai tsaye — Solo alternative
Record yourself telling a two- to three-minute connected story about a real or imagined experience. After recording, check: (1) Did you include at least one habitual sentence used correctly? (2) Did you narrate a clear sequence of completed events with appropriate connectors? (3) Did you include at least one moment of ongoing background using the continuative? (4) Did you express a feeling or reaction and a clear outcome?
Culture and Communication
Storytelling holds a significant place in many Hausa-speaking communities, taking varied forms across generations, regions, and settings. Traditional oral narratives (labaran gargajiya), often featuring animal characters, wisdom figures, or moral lessons, have historically been told by elders — frequently grandparents — to children in the evening. These traditions continue in many families alongside newer forms of storytelling in radio dramas, television, print, and social media.
It is important not to reduce Hausa storytelling to one single generalized style. Storytelling purposes and forms vary: entertainment, moral instruction, historical memory, religious teaching, and contemporary personal narrative all exist side by side. Not every Hausa-speaking family maintains the same storytelling practices, and modern life has changed how and when stories are shared in many households.
When telling personal narratives — your own or someone else's — use respectful, accurate reference to the people and places involved. Avoid generalizing a single family's or individual's experience into a claim about "Hausa people" or an entire community. A story about one grandmother's storytelling habit, one family's response to a drought, or one graduate's exam experience describes that person or family — not a universal Hausa or Nigerian experience. This chapter's model dialogue and reading passages use individually named characters and specific, bounded claims for this reason.
Personal narrative conventions can vary somewhat between rural and urban settings, between Nigeria and Niger, and across generations. Some storytellers favor an economical, direct account; others favor a more elaborated style with proverbs, repetition, or audience call-and-response, especially in traditional oral storytelling contexts. Written narrative in newspapers, reports, or student writing — like Rubutu na 2 in this chapter's reading section — tends toward a more compact, information-focused style. Both are legitimate registers, and learners should recognize which is appropriate for a given task.
Common Mistakes
Error: *Mun ziyarci kakanninmu kowace shekara. (using the completive mun to describe a repeated yearly pattern)
Correction: Mukan ziyarci kakanninmu kowace shekara. — When a sentence describes a repeated pattern (signaled by words like kowace shekara "every year," koyaushe "always," or galibi "usually"), use the habitual -kan- form, not the completive. Reserve the completive for a single, specific occasion: Mun ziyarci kakanninmu a bara (We visited our grandparents last year — one specific occasion).
Error: *Me mun yi jiya? (using the general completive mun after the question word me)
Correction: Me muka yi jiya? — Information questions with me, yaushe, ina, and similar words require the relative completive form (muka, not mun), as taught in Chapter 16. This rule does not change in narrative use; it simply appears more often once you begin asking and answering questions about a story.
Error: *Mun tafi kasuwa. Mun sayi kayan lambu. Mun dawo gida. (three disconnected completive sentences with no link between them)
Correction: Mun tafi kasuwa, muka sayi kayan lambu, sannan muka dawo gida. — A narrative should read as a connected account, not a list. Use sequence connectors (sai, sannan) to link events, and vary sentence length. This does not mean every sentence needs a connector, but a story built entirely of short, unlinked statements sounds mechanical rather than natural.
Error: *Musa ya sadu da Bello. Ya gaya masa labarin. when it is unclear who told whom.
Correction: Reintroduce a name when needed: Musa ya sadu da Bello. Musa ya gaya wa Bello labarin. — When a story has two participants of the same gender, do not rely on pronouns alone across several sentences. Reintroduce the name or a clear noun phrase whenever ambiguity could arise, especially at the start of a new sentence or after a connector.
Error: *Muna tafiya kasuwa, muna saya kayan lambu, muna dawowa gida. (using the continuative throughout to narrate a completed sequence)
Correction: Mun tafi kasuwa, muka sayi kayan lambu, muka dawo gida. — The continuative describes what was ongoing at a described moment, not a sequence of completed actions. Reserve the continuative for scene-setting background (what was happening when something else occurred) and use the completive for the main narrated events.
Chapter Review
Sashi na A — Kalmomi (Vocabulary)
1. Give the Hausa for each connector: then/after that (two ways); afterward/later; finally; because; so/therefore; but; although; nevertheless.
2. Give the Hausa for each feeling: surprise, fear, happiness, sadness, anger, relief, worry, pride.
3. Give the Hausa habitual subject-pronoun form for each: I, you (m.), she, we, they.
Sashi na B — Nahawu (Grammar)
1. For each sentence, decide whether it should use the habitual or the completive, and supply the correct form: (a) Kowace ranar Lahadi, iyalinmu ___ (tafi) coci/masallaci. (b) A ranar Lahadin da ta gabata, iyalinmu ___ (tafi) wani biki na musamman.
2. Choose the general or relative completive form: (a) Yaushe ___ (mun/muka) isa? (b) ___ (Mun/Muka) isa da rana. (c) Wanda ___ (ya/yake) kai mu shi ne kanena.
3. Combine each pair of sentences using the connector indicated. (a) Mun yi ƙoƙari sosai. Ba mu yi nasara ba. (amma) (b) Ruwan sama ya sauko. Muka jinkirta tafiyar. (don haka) (c) Muna zaune muna magana. Wutar ta kashe. (sai)
4. Rewrite this pair of sentences to remove ambiguous pronoun reference: Amina ta sadu da Hadiza. Ta gaya mata labarin makarantarta.
Sashi na C — Karatu (Reading)
1. Reread Rubutu na 1. List all habitual sentences and state what pattern each one describes.
2. List the sequence of completed events in Rubutu na 1 in order, using English.
3. Identify the cause-and-result relationship in Rubutu na 1 involving the drought. State it in English using "because" and "so."
Sashi na D — Rubutu (Writing)
1. Write a coherent narrative of 180–220 words in Hausa about a real or imagined experience. Follow the writing workshop instructions and editing checklist above.
Sashi na E — Magana (Speaking)
1. Without notes, tell your partner a two- to three-minute story with a clear beginning, sequence, and outcome. Your partner asks at least two follow-up questions. Then switch roles.
Bitar gaba ɗaya — Cumulative review (aspect, comparison, objects, subjunctive, culture)
1. For each situation, write the correct Hausa sentence using the construction specified: (a) I always visit my grandmother on Fridays. (habitual); (b) The wedding was bigger than the naming ceremony. (completive + fi); (c) Let's tell a story tonight! (subjunctive proposal); (d) He gave the gift to his sister before the celebration. (completive + indirect object); (e) We were talking when the phone rang. (continuative + completive).
2. A friend asks you: Me ya faru a ƙarshe? Write two possible responses using different outcome types (a positive resolution; an unresolved or ongoing situation).
3. Write a five-line narrative exchange in which one person asks about a past experience, the other narrates it using at least one habitual sentence, one sequence connector, and one contrast connector, and the first person reacts with a feeling word.
Chapter Performance Task
Aikin Aiwatarwa
Ba da Labari — Telling Our Stories
You have been invited to share a personal story as part of a community storytelling evening for Hausa learners. Complete both components:
- Oral component: Without notes, tell a two- to three-minute connected story to your partner or instructor about a real or imagined experience. You must: establish a clear beginning; include at least one habitual sentence describing background or general pattern; narrate a sequence of at least four completed events using appropriate general or relative completive forms and sequence connectors; include at least one moment of continuative background; use at least one cause-or-result connector and one contrast connector; express at least one clear feeling or reaction; and reach a clear outcome or reflection at the end. Answer at least two follow-up questions from your listener.
- Written component: Write your narrative of 180–220 words. The narrative must: open with a clear orientation to the story; include at least one habitual sentence, at least three completive sentences narrating the main sequence, and at least one continuative sentence for background; use connectors of sequence, cause or result, and contrast; maintain clear reference to all participants throughout; and close with a clear outcome or reflection.
Evaluation criteria: correct distinction between habitual and completive forms; correct selection of general versus relative completive and continuative forms; accurate and varied use of sequence, cause, result, and contrast connectors; clear and unambiguous reference to participants; accurate object pronoun use; accurate Boko spelling including hooked letters; a narrative with a clear beginning, sequence, and outcome; comprehensible and appropriately paced spoken delivery.
Answer Key / Amsoshi
Atisayen A — Al'ada ko lamari? (sample answers)
- yakan tafi (habitual — kowace shekara signals a repeated pattern; adjust person to match subject, e.g., mukan tafi for "our family")
- mun tafi (completive — a bara signals one specific past occasion)
- yakan ba da (habitual — kowace rana signals a repeated pattern)
- ya ba da (completive — jiya signals one specific past occasion)
Atisayen B — Zaɓi haɗin da ya dace (sample answers)
- amma (contrast: arrived early, but no one was there yet)
- saboda (cause: were late because the vehicle broke down)
- don haka (result: vehicle broke down, so they walked)
- kodayake (although tired, they continued — best placed at the start: Kodayake mun gaji sosai, mun ci gaba da tafiya.)
- sannan / sai (sequence: arrived home, then rested)
Atisayen C — Gamayya ko musamman? (sample answers)
- Mun (general completive — ordinary statement)
- kuka (relative completive — after question word yaushe)
- nake (relative continuative — focused subject ni ne)
- Muna (general continuative — ordinary background statement)
Tambayoyin fahimta na tattaunawa (Dialogue comprehension)
- Muna tafiya, sai motar ta tsaya kwatsam a tsakiyar hanya. — They were traveling (continuative) when the vehicle suddenly stopped (completive).
- Da farko: boarded the bus, traveling calmly. Sannan/sai: vehicle stopped, driver announced engine trouble. Ba da daɗewa ba: another vehicle stopped and took some passengers. A ƙarshe: arrived in Lagos, called father.
- Wasu fasinjoji sun yi fushi, amma ni na yi ƙoƙarin natsuwa. — Contrast between other passengers' anger and Musa's attempt to stay calm.
- Ka kan yi hankali koyaushe. — Describes Musa's general character/habitual behavior of being careful, spoken by Zainab.
- He learned that a person should not leave home without preparing for themselves.
- He called his father because they arrived later than expected (in the evening instead of during the day), so he wanted to reassure his father that they were safe — saboda the delay, don haka he called.
Kula na sauraro (Listening responses)
Kula na A: (1) Seven years old. (2) The mother habitually took the narrator to the market every Friday. (3) The narrator turned around and could not see the mother. (4) A woman selling fruit; she asked what was wrong and took the narrator to the market police post.
Kula na B: (a) T. (b) F — the narrator changed strategy before the major final exam, not a minor test. (c) F — the new strategy was not easy at first. (d) T.
Tambayoyin karatu (Reading comprehension)
- Mukan tashi da wuri kowace safiya domin taimakawa iyayenmu a gona. — describes a habitual morning pattern of rising early to help with farm work.
- Drought occurred and harvest was poor; the family discussed it; the father decided to go to the city for work; the family was sad; after two months he returned with money and built a new house.
- sannan introduces the father's decision after the family's discussion; bayan wata biyu introduces his return with money.
- Sukan yi karatu tare a ɗakin karatu kusan kowace rana a lokacin jarabawa.
- Kodayake ranar ta yi zafi sosai, hakan bai hana kowa jin daɗi ba. — connects the heat of the day with the fact that people still enjoyed themselves.
- Rubutu na 1 is a personal narrative (first person, reflective, informal); Rubutu na 2 is a news-style report (third person, quotations, more compact and information-focused).
Bitar gaba ɗaya — Sashi na B (sample answers)
- (a) Nakan ziyarci kakata a ranakun Juma'a. (b) Bikin aure yā fi bikin suna girma. (c) Mu ba da labari a wannan dare! (d) Ya ba wa 'yar'uwarsa kyautar kafin bikin. (e) Muna magana lokacin da wayar ta yi ƙara.
- Positive: A ƙarshe, komai ya kasance lafiya. Unresolved: Har yanzu ban san abin da ya faru ba a ƙarshe.
- Sample: A: Me ya faru lokacin da ka tafi Kano? B: Da farko, na ziyarci dangi, kamar yadda nakan yi kowace shekara. Sai wata rana, na ɓace a cikin birni. Na yi tsoro, amma na tambayi wani mutum hanya. A: To, me ya faru a ƙarshe? B: Na sami hanyar dawowa, kuma na yi murna sosai.
Sashi na D — Rubutu (sample narrative)
A ƙuruciyata, mukan tafi wurin kakannina a kowace hutu ta bazara. Wata shekara, tafiyar ta bambanta da sauran. Muna cikin mota, sai ruwan sama mai ƙarfi ya sauko kwatsam. Direban mu ya rage gudu, amma har yanzu hanya ta zama mai haɗari. Na yi tsoro sosai, kuma na fara addu'a. Ba da daɗewa ba, muka isa wani gari, sannan muka tsaya mu jira ruwan ya tsaya. Kodayake mun makara wajen isa gidan kakanni, mun isa lafiya a ƙarshe. Kakata ta yi murna ganin mu, kuma ta ce koyaushe muna cikin addu'o'inta. Wannan tafiya ta koya mini cewa kada mutum ya rasa haƙuri a lokacin wahala.
Other accurate, well-formed narratives combining habitual, completive, continuative, and connectors are equally acceptable.
Looking Ahead
Abin da ka/ki koya yanzu — What you know now
Chapter 19 has given you the tools to tell a coherent, connected story. You can now move deliberately between habitual, completive, and continuative aspect depending on what a moment in your story calls for; select correctly between general and relative forms even as questions and focus arise within a narrative; link events with connectors of sequence, cause, result, and contrast; and keep reference to people and things clear across several connected sentences. Combined with the comparison and cultural-discussion tools of Chapter 18 and the planning and subjunctive tools of Chapter 17, you now hold nearly the complete grammatical toolkit of this course. Only the final synthesis and integration remain.